The author of the Paradox-x Method conducted a research on the subject of paradox under a title: Mastering Paradox – A study of the relationship between leaders’ responses to paradoxical situations and their performance (Vukovic, 2007). The research and findings were a spark for further explorations of the causes of contrasting behaviours as well as on ability to hold seemingly paradoxical and contrasting behaviours simultaneously. Analysis showed that there is a positive correlation between evidence of thinking and behavioural style (paradoxical vs. non-paradoxical) and an independent measure of performance.
In the research, the review of the paradox literature showed that psychotherapy and family therapy have been applying the paradox concepts since the 1920’s and can be a good source of empirical information and knowledge about paradox principles. Psychoanalysis has long identified inner paradoxes – desires for independence/dependence, introversion/extroversion. And Jung claimed that only the paradox comes anywhere near to comprehending fullness of life. Another, alternative source of information is identified in the teachings of Eastern philosophies that highly valued ability to understand the paradox notion. There are a number of stories in Zen Buddhism and Confucianism that can serve as an inspiration for the theoretical concepts and empirical research.
Approaches to paradox have deep historical roots. Eastern philosophers such as Lao Tzu and Confucius described the world as a mystical interplay of interdependent contradictions. According to Lao Tsu contradiction is part of our existence. Darkness and light (represented by Yin and Yang), are two sides, two manifestations of the same reality. The opposites are two different manifestations of the same reality.
Kurt Gödel’s incompleteness theorems of mathematical logic are concerned with the limits of provability in formal axiomatic theories.
The review of the literature conducted in 2007 by the author, had identifed more interesting views on paradox. Liar’s statement ‘I always lie’ first studied by Megaric philosophers 400 B.C. well captures paradox and leads reader towards understanding of paradox nature and vicious circle in which mind is pushed when trying to understand it. Much effort has been devoted to understand the paradox including thinkers as Aristotle since paradox reveals inconsistencies in the logic. Eastern philosophies also emphasize the need for complexity and avoidance of two simplistic distinctions, Yin and Yang being an example of a complex principle. The principle depicts the whole through two opposing powers Yin (feminine principle, intuition, cold, dark) and Yang (masculine principle, rationality, warm, light). The continuous battle between bipolarity and paradox complexity can be identified in the scientific discoveries and theories as well. The mathematician, Kurt Godel, in 1931 argued that not all statements can be derived from the previous statements, thus leading to the fact that truthfulness of some statements cannot be proved, while in contrast, the mathematicians Whitehead and Russel in 1927 attempted to define complete and consistent systems. Godel’s theorem had shaken the grounds of their theory; he used the statements about themselves as “This statement is false” and showed that intention to evaluate its truthfulness leads to vicious circles of thought. Parallel to developments in mathematics discourse, physician Bohr in 1934 introduced concept of light being both, a wave and a particle, where both features are necessary for the light phenomenon to be explained. It is also important to note the work of Douglas Hofstadter elaborated in Gödel, Escher, Bach and in I Am a Strange Loop. He introduced concept of a strange loop as a cyclic structure that goes through several levels in a hierarchical system. It arises when, by moving only upwards or downwards through the system, one finds oneself back where one started. He proposes that strange loops may involve self-reference and paradox.
Douglas Hofstadter: “A strange loop is a paradoxical level-crossing feedback loop.”
The extensive use of paradox is seen in psychology that has been using paradox in the clinical therapy to help in facing inner conflicts of the actors. In music, Mozart and Beethoven used tension between harmony and discord as their inspiration.
The emergence of paradox in philosophy, psychology and natural sciences in opposition to attempt to simplify the theory and present it in logical, internally consistent constructs can be seen as a trend through centuries. Still, formal logic grounded in Aristotle, Descartes and Newton philosophy, is based on either/or thinking and is incapable of comprehending the paradox.
Confucius: “…male and female, strong and weak, rigid and tender, heaven and earth, light and darkness, thunder and lightning, cold and warmth, good and evil…the interplay of opposite principles constitutes the universe.”
